The Oldest rulers of Taxila, the Takshakas, their modern descendants being Taka tribe, whose name originated from their worship of Takila, i.e. serpents, have given rise to the name of the city,Taxila, correctly Taksha-sila, i.e. the hill capital of the Takshakas, the exact Persian translation of which id Margalla, correctly Mar (serpent)-I-Qila (fort).it is on the western side of the Margalla Hill that Taxila is located on bank of a local river,called Tamra-nala, correctly Dharama-nala (Dharma meaning "Buddhist moral law) –a name derived from a nearby Buddhist stupa, called Dharmarajika stupa, the first of its kind erected by the Mauryan emperor Asoka about the middle of the 3rd century B.C.

HATHIAL AND SARAIKHOLA RUINS

The remains of the Takshakas of Bronze Age (3rd-2nd millnnium B.C.)have been found at the bottom of the Hathial Mound on the bank of Tamra-nala, at the edge of the Mathial spur about half a mile to the north-east of Taxila Museum. Their painted pottery, polished stone tools, beads and bone implements, also found at another local site, called Saraikhola on the bank of the Kala rivulet, a few miles to the south-west of the Museum,a little distance from the main National Highway, belong to a cultural period earlier then the mature Indus Civilization of Mohen-jo-Daro fame. Saraikhola is named after a Mughal Caravan-serai not gar from the site in the thick settlement of the modern town of Saraikhola. It is near the Saraikhola site that the earliest Neolithic agricultural fields are traceable. The hill fort (sila) of the Takshakas is now completely missing but the name Taksha-sila (Taxila) survives even today in that of Margalla.

TAXILA OF THE ARYANS

The Aryans arrived in Taxila around the middle of the second millennium B.C.and gave rise to the regional name Gandhara (meaning the land of Fragrance), continued to rule here until the time of the Indian epic Mahabharata. Gandhara gave the queen Gandhari to the Mahabharata pandava heroes. One of the local Takshaka ruler bit (i.e. defeated) Parikshita, a grandson of Arjuna, a Mahabha-rata hero, but his son janmejaya routed the Takshakas, and established his seat at Taxila on the top of Hathial Mound. Here on this site for the first time Mahabharata was recited by Vaisampayana to the king janmejaya. And thus the spot become famous and the entire hill Range, called Hathial, become popular as it later was Hasti (meaning elephant) and AI, i.e. Aiaya (meaning abode) – the Place of Elephants. Others would like to derived it as Asthi and Aiaya, i.e. Place of Bones.

HATHIAL MOUND

On Hathial Mound the Aryan settlements structures of Kanjur stone , laid in rough fashion, have been excavated. This type of stone masonry is unique in Taxila. Alongwith the structures have been found terracotta human and animal figurines, beads of precious stones, burin, arrow-head, whet-stone, copper bars, needles, bone pins with globule head, found in other Aryan graves as well. Human figurines have a pointed bottom, joint legs, heavy buttocks and splayed arms, also foundin the oldest layers in the Bhir mound and also known from the Aryan graves in Swat and Dir. Still more important are the varieties of red and gray pottery, which include storage jars, stemmed and pedestal cups, bowls, goblets and tall vases.

TAXILA UNIVERSITY
(7th Century B.C. to 8th Century A.D.)

Taxila university , which is the oldest in the world, has been in existence even before the time of the Buddha and before the occupation of the Taxila valley by the Achaemanian rulers in 6th- 5th century B.C. Probably in the period of the ypanishands (7th century B.C.) philosophers gathered here to have their own schools of thought and imparted instructions. By the time of the Buddha it rose to be a strong educational Centre, where instructions were given in military science, medicine, political science, philosophy, religion, language and literature, and grammar. Among the famous products are jotipala, later to become the commander-in-chief of the Banaras King, Jivaa, later a physician of the the Magadhan ruler Bimbisara and physician of the Buddha himself, and the famous king Prasentajita of Kosala around modern Ayodhya, and still later prince Chandragupta, founder of the Mauryan Empire. Among the teachers we have Panini, the great garmmarian of 6yh century B.C. Kautila, the famous writer of the Arthsastra, a book on political science, and the great physician Charaka. One famous Centre of the later period was Uttararama,where lived the Kasyapiyas, who probably gave rise to the name Sirkap ( correctly Sri Kasyapas) site. The earliest date of the university can be inferred from an Assyrian seal on steatite "With an engraving of a worshipper in Assyrian costume in front of an Assyrian god" and the latest can be gathered from the coin finds of Hermaes, Maues, Azes, Rajuvala, Condophares,Kadphises, Huvishka, Spalapatideva, a Turki shahi ruler of 8th century A.D. it is probably the philosophere from this university whom Alexander the Great met during his stay in Taxila.

University in Mahal Site

From Hathial site we can walk to the east to a beautiful retreat, surrounded by the Hathial spurs on three sides, each of which is topped by stupas and monastic establishment, one of them could be Uttararama, while the enclosed lower plain are excavated remains called Mahal site by Sir John Marshall. It is wrong called Magal site by Sir John Marshall. It is wrongly called "Magal"(i.e. palace) because the structural remains do not those of a palace. The incomplete excavation shows part of five sets, each having a courtyard in the middle and rooms on the sides. The presence of courts with surrounding corridor and room speak of more than an ordinary residential house. Their internal means of communication points to a madrassah style of architectural planning, and hence it appears to be a university site, where the name Uttararama was recorded in a ladle inscription.other finds include two-handled baking pan, an offering stand, an amphora –all of pottery; a small bowl , a casket and a small lamp- all of steatite ; eight five beads, forty-three coins; the copper objects include significantly nineteen circular mirrors, a handled jug, a hoard if sixteen vessels, fourteen standard beakers, seven open bowls and among others ten ladles. They are all objects of ordinary use, as ban be seen in Taxila Museum, and probably they be-long to groups of men, such as students living together.

TAXILA OF THE KUSHANAS
Peak of Buddhist and Gandhara Art

In Taxila the Parthians were succeed, in the 1st century A.D. by the great Kushanas, who had succession of rulers Kujula Kadphises, his son Vima I Takto, his son Vima II, Kadphises, his son Kanishka, followed by Vasishka and his son Kanishka II, and Huvishka and Vasudeve I. Of them the greatest was Kanishka I, who started, from the beginning of his reign (about 78 A.D.), anew era which continued for 99 years. These king began a new series of gold and copper coins, with standing or sitting royal portrait, boring the title of Shao-nao-Shao (Shain Shah). Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism, and the portrayed the figure of the Buddha on his coins. They were followed by the little Kushanas, Kanishka III and Vasudeva II, who lost their Indian possessions of Mathura. Towards the end of the 3rd century A.D. they were pressed from the west by the Sassanian rulers of Iran who established their suzerainty and started a new series of Indo-Sassanian coins. It is an their time that new local dynasties, as subsidiary rulers rose up. One of them was Gadakhara or Gakkhara, as known from coins but tradition remembers them as Kiyanis. Their kings, peraya, Kirada and Samudra, issued coins of the type of the Kushanas and of the Sassanians. Finally came the Kider Kushanas, who gradually asserted their independence and continued to rule until the coming of the Huns in the middle of the 5th century A.D.

It was in the time of the Great Kushanas that Gandhara art took its final form and new sect of Buddhism, popularly known as Mahayana, become common in Gandhara. Figures of Buddha, his life story, Bodhisattvas and of the goddess Hariti were beautiful produced in schist stone, stucco and terracotta and large number of monasteries were built. From the of the little Kushanas big size of Buddha statues began to be erected in stucco. Sassanians brought their own influence on Gandhara art but both the art and religion flourished. Buddhist monks and men of learning went on missionary activity along the Silk Road to central Asia, China, Korea, and Japan, thus carrying the Gandhara art to those countries.

Kushana City of Sirsuk And Mohra Moradu and Jaulian Monasteries

The Kushana founded another city at Sirsuk to the north of the Lundi-Nala fortified settlement, rectangular in plan. The wall, which had a roll plinth at the base, has unlike Sirkap, semi-circular bastions on the outside. Both the bastions and the wall have loop holes at the height of five feet. Among the antiquities were forty coins of copper, which included right upto the time of the Turki shahi ruler Spalapati Deva, suggesting that the settlement continued here munch later than the time of the Kushanas.

Mohra Moradu is a small village, approachable by foot from the university at Mahal, or from the eastern gate of Sirkap. Today we drive from the main Khanpur road. On this site there was a Muslim Ziaratgah, sometime associated with the of Panch-Pir. The approach from the village is through a gap, which leads to a bowl like valley, drained by a rivulet. Here we have a stupa on the western side and the monastery on the eastern, both erected in the second century A.D. in the of the Great Kushanas. In the monastery coins of the Hun ruler Truman and of the Turki shahi Samanta Deva have been found. The monastery has been described by Hiuen Tsang in the early 7th century A.D. the stupa stands on a double rectangular terrace with an off-set projection for the steps on the east. The plinth walls were decorated with stucco reliefs, which go right upto the top of the drum. In the bays between the pilasters were groups of Buddha's with attendant Bodhisattvas and Devas. The monastery consists of a square court with cells around and additional halls for assembly and other rooms for kitchen, refectory and guardroom. There are a number of niches added to the outer wall of the cell, which enshrined Buddhist figures. In addition, one cell had a complete stupa later installed inside, the like of which is now in Taxila Museum. Some stucco sculptures have also been removed to Taxila Museum. The open court is at a lower level with a place for the lustral bath.

Jaulian, probably derived from Jail walian(place of Muslim religious heads) Buddhist establishment is picturesquely perched on the top of Hathial Range further ahead a little way off from the Khanpur Road. By its side a new road now passes. From its top can have a marvelous view of Taxila valley. But the present roof around the main stupa does not give a god of view of the decorated votive stupa around. In actual planning the monastic establishment is an exact copy of the Buddhist monument at Mohra Moradu, though later additions give different perspective. As we climb up from the north, we enter the later court of niches through the postern entrance and come directly in front of the main stupa, to the north of which there is flight of steps. Just before this towards our right, in a small room, there is a stucco seated Buddha, with its head changed several times in the past. Around the main stupa a number of votive stupas can be seen, the square bases of which show a marvelous decoration of stucco Buddha's and Buddhisattvas. They are the best-preserved stucco art in Taxila. After seeing the main stupa, we pass through the complex of empty niches and reach the entrance of the monastery. On the left side of the entrance there is a cell, in the Centre of which is a Buddha with twelve subsidiary figures on his right and left. One of which is a central Asian style and dress. The original is now in Taxila Museum. The monastery inside is an open court with a verandah around, behind which are residential cells in two stories. The inches in the verandah have more stucco sculptures. A postern entrance leads to subsidiary halls and rooms meant for other purpose. In one corner of the courtyard there is a lustral bathroom.

Taxila of Huns and Turki Shahis

After the kushanas Taxila no longer remained seat of government of Gandhara. In this change of government prosperity of the city was much affected. Patronage to Buddhism was lost. As a result the monastery declined but did not finish off. Certainly the conquest of the Huns did not spell doom on the Buddhist establishment, as is opined by Sir john Marshall. The condition of Buddhism can be read in the accounts of the Chinese pilgrims:

Fa Hien writes: there is a country called Chu-ch-shi-lo, (which) in Chinese word is ‘cut-off-head’. Buddha, when he was a come the name. Again going eastwards for two day, we come to the place where he gives his body to feed the starving tiger. On these two stops again are built great stupas, both adorned with every kind of previous jewel. The kings, ministers, and the people of the neighboring countryside with one another in their offering, scattering flowers and lighting lamps without intermission, These and the two stupas before named the men of the district call ‘the four great stupas’"

Hiuen Tsang writes: the kingdom of Ta-ch-shi-lo (Taxila) is about 2000 lie in circuit, and the capital is about 10 lie in circuit. The royal family being extinct, the nobles contend for power by force. Formerly this country was in subjection to Kapisa, but latterly it has become tributary to Kia-shi-lo (Kashmir). The land is renowned for its fertility, and produced rich harvests. It is very full of streams and fountains. Flowers and fruits are abundant. The climate is agreeably temperate. The people are lively and courageous, and they honout the three gems. Although there are many Sangharamas, they have become ruinous and deserted, there are very few priests: those that there very study the great vehicle.

It is only Sung-Yu, who visited Gandhara in 520 A.D. talks of destruction in Gandhara: "This is the country which the Yetihas (Huns) destroyed, and afterwards set up Lac-lih to be king over the country, since which events two generations have passed. The disposition of the king was cruel and vindictive. And he practiced the most barbarous atrocities. He did not believe the of the Buddha, but the loved the worship demons. The people of the country belonged entirely to Brahman casts; they had a great respect for the law of the Buddha, and loved to read the sacred books, when the suddenly this king came into power, who was strongly opposed to anything of the sort. The name of the ruler is corrected as Thunjina( or Tigin). However, in the reign of the second ruler Toraman a donation was made to a Buddhist monastery in the Salt Range. The Huns continued to rule with there Centre in Kashmir until their last king Yudhisthira was overthrown by Chandragupta Muktapida of Kashmir in early 8th century Ad. Taxila become a part of the kingdom of the Kashmir but other regions came under the rule of the Turki Shahis. When Huns Tsang came in the early in the 7th century A.D., the Hun ruler was Khinkhila or Khingala, who had a great respect for him. Still later the Turki shah rule was replaced by a Rajput clan, called Hindu Shahis, generally identified with jouan (modern janjuas), who built a new system of fortification on hill tops. It is in their time that Giri fort was built in Taxila.

Bhallar, Bhamala and Giri

Bhallar stupa is situated on a route from Mechanical complex to Haripur, having a commanding position on the top of the Sarada Hill, a little beyond the Haro River. This is the tallest stupa in Taxila. This was visited by the Chinese pilgrims, pa Hien and Hiuen Tsang, and they identify it with the spot where Buddha offered his head. This was built in the "medieval period" i.e. post-Hun period. It consists of a tall stupa, surrounded by votive stupas, other shrines and a monastery. Here the Buddhist monk Kumaralabha composed his treatise. The main stupa, which is broken on the northern face, stood on a lofty oblong base, approached by a fight of steps on the east. It consists of a plinth base, a drum, a dome and originally umbrellas. The drum is divided into six or seven tiers and divided into six or seven tiers and is decorated with Corinthian pilasters, freezes and dental cornices.

Bhamala is situated at the very head of the Haro Valley, made beautiful by the bends of the river in the background of surrounding hills having prehistoric caves. The monastic establishment came into existence of coins of Indo assarians and Huns. The nain stupa is unique if its kind, having a cruciform plan, consisting of a tall square base for the dome, above which off-set projections for the steps can be seen on all four sides. The Corinthian pilasters divide the plinth into bays. In one of them was found Buddha in sleeping pose, now in Taxila Museum. The monastery is of the Jaulian type. This is the most charming place for a visit from Khanpur.

Giri: when we follow the route from the Dharmarajika stupa south-south-east we first come to the monastic establishment at Kalawan, the biggest of its kind in Taxila, which had a longest span of life from the time of the Parthians to a late period.

Following the same route we pass through a rocky defile between the old village of Khurram Piracha and Khurram Gujar, enter a secluded valley and arrive in the glen of Giri, which lies on the old route that went across Margalla . Here we have two groups of Buddhist establishments, a fort, a Muslim Ziarat and mosques, all ranging from the early Kushana period to the time of Akbar(1556-1605). The Buddhist constructions fall into two groups- the eastern and the western. The eastern group, which stands just above the spring, consists of a stupa in the north and monastery in the south. The western group consists of a stupa of square shape in the north and a monastery on the east.

To the north of the monasteries lie mosques, Ziarats, and a rocky hill strengthened by a fort wall having semi-circular bastions. Inside there are remains of dwellings and other structures. The fortification belong to a time much later than that of the Huns.

Taxila of the Greeks, Seythians and Parthians and the Beginning of Gandhara Art

The Mauryan rule in was finished by those later Greeks who were settled in section by Alexander the Great and who had declared independence in about 250 B.C. The earliest Greek coin found in Bhir mound belongs to the ruler Demetrius I on of Euthydemus(225-190 B.C.). His descendants, Agathocles, Pantaleon, and Menander built a new city of the north of Hathial Range, known today as Sirkap(correctly Srikap of Sri Kasyapa the old inhabitants of Uttararama monastery on Hathial Range). Another branch of the Greeks, who advanced from Heart and Kandahar, are descended from Eucratides I, whose coins have been found in Srikap. Eucratides was followed by Plato, Heliocles, Apollodotus and Antialcidas(140-130 B.C.). The latter’s ambassador Helioder calls himself as a "Greek from x Taxila." However, it is Menander who consolidated Greek rule in Gandhara and who is well known in Buddhist literature. His son Strato, along with the queen mother Agathocleia, ruled in Taxila until his old age. The last Greek King was Hermaeus.

It is these Greek king who introduced minted coins with royal portraits in Taxila. Greek sculptural art came with them from Bactria, and they themselves copied the local Khasoshthi writing and local gods and goddesses along with Greek ones on their coins. After them we find here Greek gods and goddess's, toilet trays, columns with Greek capitals, drinking and dancing scenes, love stories, cupid, musicians, wavy garlands, terracotta and stucco figurines, pottery and seals of various kinds, so well represented in Taxila Museum.

The Greek were followed by Scythians and still later by Parthians, who continued to role in Sirkap city of Taxila. Of the Scythians the most important ruler was Maues, from whose time stone Sculptures are seen in Taxila Museum. Of the Parthians Condophares is well known as he is associated with the Christian story of St.Thomas.

It is the Parthians city that is described by Apollonius of Tyana:

"Taxila was about the size of Nineveh, walled like a Greek city, and was the residence of a sovereign……….. Just outside the walls was a temple………. In this temple they wait until the the King can be apprised of their arrival……….they are taken to the palace. They found the city divided by narrow streets, well-arranged and reminding them of Athens. From the streets, the houses seemed of only one story but they all had an underground floor. They saw the temple of the sun, and in it statues of Alexander and porus, the one of the gold and the other of bronze, its wall were of red marble, but glittering with gold, the image of the god was of pearls, having, as is usual with barbarians in sacred things, a symbolical meaning. The palace was distinguished by no extraordinary magnificence, and was just like the house of any citizen of the better class. There were on sentinels or bodyguards and but few servants about, and perhaps three or four persons who were waiting to talk with the King. The same simplicity was observable in the courts, halls, waiting and inner rooms; and it pleased Apollonius more than all the pomp of Babylon. When admitted to the king’s presence, Apollonius through the interpreter, addressed the king as a philosopher, and complimented him on his moderation. The king, phraotes, in answer, said that he was moderate because his wants were few, and that as he was wealthy, he employed his wealthy in doing good to his friends and in subsidizing the barbarians, his neighbors, to prevent them from themselves ravaging, or allowing other barbarians to ravage his territories. Here, one of his courtiers offered to crown him with a jeweled , but he refused it, as well because all pomp was hateful to him because of Appolonius presence."

Bhir to Sirkap

In Bhir mound the earliest Greek construction belongs to the time of Demetrius I. This can be recognized in the long stone-built covered drain, discovered in the new excavations. From Bhir the new city was shifted to Sirkap, whose limits are defined by Tamara-Nala on the west and Geri rivulet on the east and north beyond Kachcna Kot but now dried up. Sirkap is a planned city with a fortification wall, the foundation of which was laid by the Greeks. The fortification wall descends from Hathial Range and has its main gateway on the north. The northern wall also shows square bastions at intervals. The interior presents an example of a pre-planned city with a layout of a regular straight streets, and houses are arranged in block system a derived from the west. However, the individual houses were planned in the eastern style with a central open courtyard in the middle, the exposed stone walls seen today belong to the Parthian period, when the city was reconstructed after the earth-quake of 20-30 A.D. but following the old plan. Hence today the city blocks present houses planned in the oriental style and they are interspersed with Buddhist stupas and other shrines. The city is dominated by the main street along, which are small rooms meant for shops. As we enter the gateway, we see the refuse the walls just inside, and than the passage bends and we have the inner guard rooms before we reach the main street. After the poor houses of the first block A on the right side is a residential complex, as also the next blocks B and B, on both the left and the right side. The next block C’ on the right again has in the corner a stupa within the quadrangle, with the double steps leading from the main street. The next block D on the left is occupied wholly by an apsidal temple in a large raised quadrangle, approached double steps by from the main stupa. The next block E on the left shows the solid drum of a round stupa. On the right is a sun-temple , by the side of which was found a statue of the god Sun, new in Taxila Museum. In block F on the left we see the double headed Eagle stupa within a courtyard, displaying a mixture of architectural features. This is followed by a block G, which again has a stupa within a courtyard. Three more blocks intervene before we come to the palace remains. There is still much more to be excavated on the western side. Where the does not follow straight line because of the Tamra-nala on the side.

Deep digging was done in a limited area on the right where scanty structural remains of rubble wall were found, it is here that pre-Greek level was noted, presenting punch-marked coins and Earth-goddess of the oldest type, also found from Bhir Mound. From the Greek level a sacred shrine has been identified, which has produced objects of Greek or west Asiatic origin.

Taxila of Huns and Turki Shahis

After the kushanas Taxila no longer remained seat of government of Gandhara. In this change of government prosperity of the city was much affected. Patronage to Buddhism was lost. As a result the monastery declined but did not finish off. Certainly the conquest of the Huns did not spell doom on the Buddhist establishment, as is opined by Sir john Marshall. The condition of Buddhism can be read in the accounts of the Chinese pilgrims:

Fa Hien writes: there is a country called Chu-ch-shi-lo, (which) in Chinese word is ‘cut-off-head’. Buddha, when he was a come the name. Again going eastwards for two day, we come to the place where he gives his body to feed the starving tiger. On these two stops again are built great stupas, both adorned with every kind of previous jewel. The kings, ministers, and the people of the neighboring countryside with one another in their offering, scattering flowers and lighting lamps without intermission, These and the two stupas before named the men of the district call ‘the four great stupas’"

Hiuen Tsang writes: the kingdom of Ta-ch-shi-lo (Taxila) is about 2000 lie in circuit, and the capital is about 10 lie in circuit. The royal family being extinct, the nobles contend for power by force. Formerly this country was in subjection to Kapisa, but latterly it has become tributary to Kia-shi-lo (Kashmir). The land is renowned for its fertility, and produced rich harvests. It is very full of streams and fountains. Flowers and fruits are abundant. The climate is agreeably temperate. The people are lively and courageous, and they honout the three gems. Although there are many Sangharamas, they have become ruinous and deserted, there are very few priests: those that there very study the great vehicle.

It is only Sung-Yu, who visited Gandhara in 520 A.D. talks of destruction in Gandhara: "This is the country which the Yetihas (Huns) destroyed, and afterwards set up Lac-lih to be king over the country, since which events two generations have passed. The disposition of the king was cruel and vindictive. And he practiced the most barbarous atrocities. He did not believe the of the Buddha, but the loved the worship demons. The people of the country belonged entirely to Brahman casts; they had a great respect for the law of the Buddha, and loved to read the sacred books, when the suddenly this king came into power, who was strongly opposed to anything of the sort. The name of the ruler is corrected as Thunjina( or Tigin). However, in the reign of the second ruler Toraman a donation was made to a Buddhist monastery in the Salt Range. The Huns continued to rule with there Centre in Kashmir until their last king Yudhisthira was overthrown by Chandragupta Muktapida of Kashmir in early 8th century Ad. Taxila become a part of the kingdom of the Kashmir but other regions came under the rule of the Turki Shahis. When Huns Tsang came in the early in the 7th century A.D., the Hun ruler was Khinkhila or Khingala, who had a great respect for him. Still later the Turki shah rule was replaced by a Rajput clan, called Hindu Shahis, generally identified with jouan (modern janjuas), who built a new system of fortification on hill tops. It is in their time that Giri fort was built in Taxila.

Bhallar, Bhamala and Giri

Bhallar stupa is situated on a route from Mechanical complex to Haripur, having a commanding position on the top of the Sarada Hill, a little beyond the Haro River. This is the tallest stupa in Taxila. This was visited by the Chinese pilgrims, pa Hien and Hiuen Tsang, and they identify it with the spot where Buddha offered his head. This was built in the "medieval period" i.e. post-Hun period. It consists of a tall stupa, surrounded by votive stupas, other shrines and a monastery. Here the Buddhist monk Kumaralabha composed his treatise. The main stupa, which is broken on the northern face, stood on a lofty oblong base, approached by a fight of steps on the east. It consists of a plinth base, a drum, a dome and originally umbrellas. The drum is divided into six or seven tiers and divided into six or seven tiers and is decorated with Corinthian pilasters, freezes and dental cornices.

Bhamala is situated at the very head of the Haro Valley, made beautiful by the bends of the river in the background of surrounding hills having prehistoric caves. The monastic establishment came into existence of coins of Indo assarians and Huns. The nain stupa is unique if its kind, having a cruciform plan, consisting of a tall square base for the dome, above which off-set projections for the steps can be seen on all four sides. The Corinthian pilasters divide the plinth into bays. In one of them was found Buddha in sleeping pose, now in Taxila Museum. The monastery is of the Jaulian type. This is the most charming place for a visit from Khanpur.

Giri: when we follow the route from the Dharmarajika stupa south-south-east we first come to the monastic establishment at Kalawan, the biggest of its kind in Taxila, which had a longest span of life from the time of the Parthians to a late period.

Following the same route we pass through a rocky defile between the old village of Khurram Piracha and Khurram Gujar, enter a secluded valley and arrive in the glen of Giri, which lies on the old route that went across Margalla . Here we have two groups of Buddhist establishments, a fort, a Muslim Ziarat and mosques, all ranging from the early Kushana period to the time of Akbar(1556-1605). The Buddhist constructions fall into two groups- the eastern and the western. The eastern group, which stands just above the spring, consists of a stupa in the north and monastery in the south. The western group consists of a stupa of square shape in the north and a monastery on the east.

To the north of the monasteries lie mosques, Ziarats, and a rocky hill strengthened by a fort wall having semi-circular bastions. Inside there are remains of dwellings and other structures. The fortification belong to a time much later than that of the Huns.